stammer

Stammer, or stuttering, is a speech disorder characterized by disruptions in the flow of speech. Core disfluencies include repetitions of sounds or syllables, prolongations of sounds, and blocks where no sound is produced. Many children show some disfluency as they learn to talk; most recover without treatment. Stammering that persists into later childhood or adulthood is less common, affecting about 1% of adults.

Symptoms and patterns: Disfluencies vary by person and context and may be worsened by stress, speaking quickly, or talking to unfamiliar listeners. In addition to core disfluencies, people may show secondary movements such as blinking, facial tension, or unusual breathing. Anxiety or negative attitudes about speaking can develop, and some individuals avoid certain talking situations.

Causes and risk factors: Stammering arises from an interaction of genetic, neurophysiological, and environmental factors. Family history increases risk, and studies show differences in brain activity related to speech planning and timing. Onset typically occurs in early childhood; it is not simply the result of nervousness or upbringing.

Management and prognosis: Diagnosis is usually by a speech-language pathologist based on observed speech patterns and impact on communication. Treatments include fluency shaping, stuttering modification, and strategies to reduce avoidance and anxiety. Early intervention yields better outcomes; many people improve with practice, support, and ongoing therapy. Some individuals continue to stammer into adulthood, but can communicate effectively with accommodations and supports.