forensics

Forensics is the application of science to questions of law. It refers to the collection, preservation, analysis, and interpretation of physical evidence in order to establish facts that can be presented in a court of law. Forensic work integrates laboratory science, investigative practice, and expert testimony, operating within the framework of legal procedure and ethics.

Discipline covers a broad range of specialties. Traditional forensic disciplines include forensic pathology, toxicology, chemistry, and criminalistics (the analysis of evidence such as drugs, explosives, fibers, glass, and gunshot residues). Molecular biology and DNA analysis have become central to modern investigations. Other fields include fingerprint analysis, ballistics, trace evidence, odontology, and forensic anthropology. Digital forensics focuses on recovering and analyzing information from electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and cloud data, often involving metadata, encryption, and data preservation.

Process and standards. A typical forensic workflow begins with crime scene investigation and the careful collection and documentation of evidence to preserve the chain of custody. Evidence is then analyzed in accredited laboratories using validated methods. Results are interpreted by qualified experts and presented in reports and testimony, with an emphasis on transparency, reproducibility, and uncertainty. Many jurisdictions require admissibility standards (such as Daubert or Frye) to ensure that methods are scientifically reliable and properly applied. The Locard principle—often summarized as the exchange of materials when two objects come into contact—underpins the idea that crimes leave traces.

Limitations and ethics. Forensic conclusions are probabilistic rather than absolute and depend on sample quality, method limitations, and potential bias. Forensic scientists must avoid overstating certainty, disclose limitations, and adhere to professional ethics to maintain public trust.