electronic

Electronic refers to devices, circuits, and systems that rely on controlled flow of electrons to process, store, or transmit information or energy. The term distinguishes from electrical engineering, which broadly covers power and distribution systems; electronics focuses on circuits and components such as semiconductors.

The core domain includes analog electronics, which handles continuous signals; digital electronics, which uses discrete levels; and microelectronics, which deals with miniaturized circuits on semiconductor substrates. Common components include diodes, transistors, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and integrated circuits. Principles derive from solid-state physics and circuit theory, including amplification, switching, and signal processing.

History: early 20th century saw vacuum tubes enabling radio and audio amplification; the invention of the transistor in 1947 revolutionized electronics; integrated circuits in the late 1950s enabled compact, complex circuits. Since then, electronics has driven computing, communications, consumer electronics, and automation, with notable advances in microprocessors, memory, wireless technology, and sensors.

Subfields and applications: power electronics controls and converts electrical energy for devices; RF electronics handles radio frequency signals; embedded systems integrate electronics with software in devices. Applications span computers, mobile devices, networks, automotive electronics, medical devices, and industrial automation. Environmental and safety concerns include electronic waste, hazardous substances, and the need for recycling and sustainable design.