methods

Methods refer to the systematic procedures or techniques used to achieve a result, such as answering a research question, solving a problem, or performing a task. They describe how activities are conducted and are distinct from outcomes or theoretical concepts. A well-chosen set of methods increases the reliability, validity, and reproducibility of findings.

In scientific research, methods form the basis of the study design and are typically organized into design, participants or subjects, materials or instruments, procedures, and data analysis. Methods may include experimental controls, measurement techniques, sampling strategies, and statistical or computational tools. Qualitative methods emphasize context, meaning, and interpretation, while quantitative methods focus on measurement and statistical inference. Mixed methods combine elements of both.

In programming, a method is a subroutine associated with an object or class that performs an operation, often using the object's data and returning a result. Methods enable modular, reusable code and are central to object-oriented design.

In the humanities and social sciences, methods cover approaches such as textual analysis, ethnography, case studies, surveys, discourse analysis, or archival research. Researchers select methods based on research questions, epistemological assumptions, and practical constraints.

Good practice requires transparent documentation of methods, justification for choices, and attention to ethics, bias, and limitations. Clear reporting of methods supports replication and critical evaluation by others.