anthropology

Anthropology is the holistic study of humans, aiming to understand the biological and cultural diversity of people across time and space. The field encompasses four main subfields: cultural anthropology, physical (or biological) anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology. Cultural anthropology investigates contemporary societies and their social norms, practices, beliefs, and institutions, often using participant observation and ethnography. Physical anthropology studies human biology, evolution, and variation, including primatology, human osteology, and forensic anthropology. Archaeology examines past human societies through material remains such as tools, structures, and artifacts. Linguistic anthropology analyzes how language shapes social life, identity, and cultural transmission.

Historically, anthropology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries as scholars sought to compare cultures and explain human diversity. Notable contributors include Franz Boas, Bronisław Malinowski, and Margaret Mead, who emphasized fieldwork, cultural relativism, and the complexity of social life. Methodologies vary by subfield but commonly include long-term field engagement, participant observation, surveys, interviews, and analysis of artifacts or genetic data. Ethical considerations prioritize informed consent, respect for communities, and consideration of potential impacts on research participants.

Applications of anthropological knowledge appear in public health, education, heritage and museum work, development, policy, and cross-cultural communication. Anthropologists often collaborate with other disciplines to address social problems, preserve cultural heritage, or interpret archaeological finds. The discipline continues to adapt to new technologies and global perspectives, with growing attention to issues such as globalization, inequality, and indigenous rights.