Fitna

Fitna is an Arabic term meaning trial, temptation, or civil strife. In Islamic historiography, the word denotes periods of internal conflict within the early Muslim community, and is often used to describe two major episodes in the 7th century, as well as broader episodes of upheaval in Muslim history. The term also appears in modern vernacular to refer to various forms of social or political discord within Muslim-majority societies. In addition, Fitna is the title of a 2008 Dutch documentary by Geert Wilders about Islam, which generated international controversy.

The First Fitna (approximately 656–661 CE) followed the assassination of Uthman and involved contested authority among Ali, Muawiya, and other parties. Key events included the Battle of the Camel (Ali against Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr) and the Battle of Siffin (Ali against Muawiya). The ensuing arbitration and the rise of the Kharijites contributed to ongoing instability. Ali was assassinated in 661, after which Muawiya established the Umayyad caliphate, ending the Rashidun line.

The Second Fitna (roughly 680s–692) arose after Muawiya’s death and featured renewed dynastic and regional conflicts. Central episodes included the challenge to Yazid I’s rule, the revolt of Husayn at Karbala, and the broader Ibn al-Zubayr uprising in Mecca. The Umayyads ultimately maintained control and stabilized the caliphate under Marwan I, though the period marked continued fragmentation and periodic fighting.

Modern usage of Fitna sometimes refers to intra-Muslim political or sectarian strife. The 2008 documentary Fitna drew substantial debate about freedom of expression and the portrayal of Islam, eliciting responses from governments, organizations, and various communities worldwide.