caliphate

Caliphate refers to a form of Islamic governance in which the caliph serves as the political and religious leader of the Muslim community, or umma. The term khalifa means successor, steward, or representative, and the caliph is viewed as the deputy of God on Earth for the community, rather than a prophet. The institution emerged after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632, with the Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphate (632–661) established by his close companions. Successive caliphates included the Umayyad (661–750) and Abbasid (750–1258) dynasties, which expanded territories and fostered administration, culture, and trade. The Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) in North Africa and parts of the Levant claimed caliphal authority based on Shi'a Ismaili doctrine, though their religious leadership differed from Sunni models.

From the 10th century onward, various dynasties claimed caliphal legitimacy or served as nominal heads of state, while real political power often lay with sultans or other rulers. The Ottoman Empire, ruling in the 16th–20th centuries, held a formal claim to the caliphate from 1517 until its abolition in 1924, after which the caliphate ceased to exist as a state institution.

In modern discourse, some groups have proclaimed a caliphate, most notably in 2014–2019, but these declarations are not widely recognized and are condemned by most Muslim scholars and states. In contemporary usage, “caliphate” can denote either a historical institution or an ideological concept of universal Muslim political unity, rather than a universally accepted, ongoing political system.