conflicts

Conflicts refer to clashes arising from perceived incompatible goals, interests, or actions among two or more parties. They involve interference in one another's plans and are characterized by emotions, communication breakdowns, and strategy incompatibilities. Conflicts can be latent or active, latent when parties disagree but do not yet act on it, and active when open confrontation occurs. They occur at multiple levels: interpersonal (between individuals), intrapersonal (internal conflicts within a person), organizational (within or between organizations), community, national, or international.

Causes are varied and often interrelated: scarcity of resources, competing values or identities, power imbalances, grievances from past injustices, misperceptions and communication failures, or structural inequalities. Cultural, social, and institutional contexts shape how conflicts arise, are interpreted, and are managed.

Management and resolution aim to reduce harm and address underlying interests. Approaches include negotiation and dialogue, mediation or facilitation by a neutral third party, arbitration or adjudication, and restorative justice processes. If peaceful means fail, coercive measures or intervention may occur, with significant ethical and practical implications. Prevention focuses on early warning, inclusive governance, equitable resource distribution, conflict-sensitive policy, and institution-building.

Outcomes vary: conflicts can cause injury and displacement or, in some cases, catalyze reforms and social change. The study of conflict and its resolution spans disciplines such as political science, psychology, sociology, and peace studies, emphasizing analysis of causes, escalation patterns, stakeholder interests, and effective interventions.