1550s1560s

The 1550s and 1560s form a period marked by religious conflict, political realignments, and the expansion of cross‑ocean trade. In Europe, the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 established a legal framework for coexistence between Catholicism and Lutheranism within the Holy Roman Empire, though conflicts continued. The councils and reforms of the Catholic Counter-Reformation gathered pace, with the Council of Trent continuing from 1545 to 1563 and shaping Catholic doctrine and organization. England saw a shift from the Catholic rule of Mary I to the Elizabethan settlement beginning in 1558, as Elizabeth I established a Protestant-leaning policy while seeking stability. France endured the Wars of Religion after 1562, with episodes of sectarian violence and political struggle. The Italian Wars concluded with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, reordering alliances in Western Europe.

Ottoman and Habsburg power struggles flared on the European periphery, notably the 1566 siege of Szigetvár during Suleiman the Magnificent’s campaign against Hungary.

Across the oceans, European powers established and extended colonial footholds. The Portuguese secured Macau in 1557 as a trading outpost, and in 1565 Legazpi founded Manila in the Philippines as a base for the Asia trade. The Manila–Galleon route and silver flows link the Americas and Asia more closely. In South Asia, the Mughal emperor Akbar began consolidating rule after 1556, promoting central administration and religious tolerance. Scientific and cartographic advances accompanied exploration, with Gerardus Mercator publishing his world map in 1569, contributing to more accurate navigation.