Mughal

Mughal refers to the Mughal Empire and its ruling dynasty, which governed large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. The name derives from Persian mughal, meaning Mongol, reflecting the dynasty’s claimed descent from the Mongol and Timurid lineages. The empire was founded by Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur after his victory at Panipat in 1526, establishing a centralized administration and a capital that alternated between Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Delhi.

Key rulers included Akbar (r. 1556–1605), who expanded the realm and pursued a policy of religious toleration; Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), who oversaw a cultural flowering and monumental architecture; and Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), who extended control to the Deccan but faced growing administrative and fiscal strains.

Administration rested on the mansabdari system, a hierarchical corps of officials and soldiers; subahs or provinces were governed by appointed governors, and revenue came from agrarian taxation with various fiscal arrangements. The empire promoted a syncretic Indo-Persian culture, with Persian and vernacular languages, Mughal miniature painting, and distinctive architecture such as the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, and Fatehpur Sikri.

Decline began after Aurangzeb’s death, hindered by succession conflicts, regional uprisings, and external pressure, including the 1739 invasion of Nadir Shah. By the 18th century, the empire had fragmented into competing powers; the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed and exiled by the British following the 1857 rebellion, marking the end of the empire. The Mughal legacy persists in South Asian art, architecture, and cultural synthesis.