predestination

Predestination is a theological doctrine about God’s sovereignty over human destiny. In Christian thought, it refers to the claim that God has fixed, from eternity, the ultimate outcome for individuals—typically, who will attain salvation (the elect) and who will not (the non-elect). Debates often distinguish between unconditional predestination, where God’s decree is not conditioned on anything in the creature, and conditional or foreseen predestination, where God’s choice depends on factors such as faith or foreseen merit. Some discussions also distinguish predestination from God’s broader providence or foreknowledge of events.

Historically, Augustine of Hippo articulated a formulation of predestination tied to divine grace, emphasizing that salvation depends on God’s mercy rather than human merit. Medieval and scholastic theologians developed the theme within Catholic theology. During the Protestant Reformation, John Calvin argued for unconditional election and, in some formulations, double predestination (God choosing some to salvation and others to damnation). In reaction, Jacob Arminius and his followers argued for conditional election based on foreseen faith, giving rise to Arminianism. Catholic theologians such as the Molinists proposed a theory of middle knowledge to harmonize providence with human freedom. Some Lutherans also taught election but with differing emphasis on grace and assurance.

Today, views range from strict predestination (often called double predestination) in some Reformed circles to conditional election in Arminian and Wesleyan traditions. Other positions include a more open or compatibilist understanding of freedom, or the rejection of predestination altogether. Across traditions, discussions focus on the relationship between divine sovereignty, human free will, the role of grace, and scriptural interpretation (for example, passages cited from Romans and Ephesians).