Medieval

Medieval, or the Middle Ages, is the period in European history from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (c. 476) to the beginning of the Renaissance and the Age of Exploration (c. 1450–1500). The term medieval derives from Latin medium aevum, meaning 'the middle ages'. It is primarily used for Western Europe, though contemporaneous developments occurred in Byzantium and the Islamic world.

Society was organized largely around feudal relationships and the manorial system, with the Catholic Church as a dominant institution. Monarchies expanded, but political power often rested with lords, bishops, and regional elites. Serfdom and obligations shaped rural life, while towns and guilds began to transform traditional structures in the High Middle Ages.

Economy depended on agriculture, with innovations such as the heavy plow and three-field rotation. Trade revived in the late medieval period, spurring the growth of towns and networks, including the Hanseatic League. Technological changes included windmills, watermills, and improved metallurgy; gunpowder arrived late and altered warfare. The period also saw the emergence of universities and renewed learning, often in monastic and cathedral schools.

Culture and learning were shaped by the church, with scholastic philosophy seeking to reconcile faith and reason. Gothic architecture, Romanesque style, illuminated manuscripts, and vernacular literature such as chivalric romance contributed to medieval culture. The Crusades and contact with Byzantine and Islamic worlds influenced science and art.

The late Middle Ages faced famines, the Black Death (1347–1351), and unrest, but also demographic and economic shifts that helped bring on the Renaissance and early modern era. The period left enduring legacies in law, language, education, architecture, and institutions that influenced Europe.