learning

Learning is a process that leads to a relatively permanent change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior resulting from experience, study, or instruction. It occurs in cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains and takes place in formal education, workplace training, informal settings, and self-directed practice. Learning is often cumulative and context-dependent, influenced by motivation, prior knowledge, and social environment.

Theoretical perspectives: Behaviorism emphasizes observable change through reinforcement and conditioning. Cognitive approaches examine mental processes such as attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval. Constructivism argues learners build understanding through active exploration and problem solving. Social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation, modeling, and imitation. More recent views in digital and networked learning highlight connective and situated learning.

Mechanisms and practices: Effective learning involves attention, encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Techniques include spaced repetition, retrieval practice, feedback, and deliberate practice. Active engagement, metacognition, and scaffolding support transfer to novel tasks. Neurobiological research notes the role of neuroplasticity in acquiring new skills.

Settings and assessment: Learning occurs in schools, universities, workplaces, online platforms, and everyday life. Assessment ranges from formative feedback to summative tests, performance tasks, and portfolios, guiding subsequent study. Barriers include cognitive load, motivation, and anxiety; facilitators include clear goals, structured guidance, and opportunities for practice in authentic contexts.

Significance: Learning underpins personal development, professional competence, and social participation. It is a multidisciplinary field drawing on psychology, education, neuroscience, and instructional design, with ongoing research into efficiency, equity, and adaptability in changing environments.