behavior

Behavior refers to the observable actions and reactions of organisms in response to internal states, external stimuli, and social contexts. It includes movements, vocalizations, foraging, mating, communication, and physiological responses that can be measured or inferred. Behavior is a primary focus across disciplines such as ethology, psychology, neuroscience, and sociology, and it helps illuminate how organisms interact with their environment and with others.

Behavior can be classified in several ways. Innate or instinctive behaviors are present without specific learning, while learned behaviors develop through experience. Voluntary behaviors are typically goal-directed and under conscious control, whereas reflexes are automatic and involuntary. Proximate explanations describe mechanisms and development that produce behavior, while ultimate explanations address evolutionary function and adaptation. Researchers study behavior by observing in natural settings, conducting controlled experiments, or using computational models, and report measures such as frequency, latency, duration, and intensity.

Two influential perspectives in the study of behavior are ethology, which emphasizes naturalistic observation and biological causes, and behaviorism, which concentrates on observable actions and environmental determinants. In applied contexts, behavior analysis informs domains such as animal training, education, psychology, and organizational management. Ethical considerations guide research and practice to protect the welfare of humans and animals.

Behavior varies widely across species and contexts, showing plasticity in response to changing environments. It can be adaptive, supporting survival and reproduction, or maladaptive when incentives or neurological processes are disrupted.