welfare

Welfare refers to the well-being of individuals and the public policies intended to secure basic economic and social standards. In economics, welfare also denotes a set of concepts in welfare economics that assess the overall well-being or utility of a society, often via a social welfare function. In policy terms, welfare encompasses programs designed to reduce poverty and risk, ensure access to essentials, and promote health, education, and economic security.

Historically, modern welfare arrangements emerged in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Industrializing states introduced social insurance and healthcare, with Bismarckian programs in Germany (1880s) and later expansion in the United Kingdom after World War II following the Beveridge Report. The welfare state aims to provide a safety net, smooth consumption, and opportunities for participation in the economy.

Welfare programs include cash transfers (pensions, disability benefits, unemployment benefits), in-kind supports (universal healthcare, housing assistance, food aid), and services (education, child care). Some programs are universal, others means-tested or tied to contributions through social insurance schemes. Financing typically relies on taxation and payroll contributions, with eligibility rules influenced by residency, income, assets, and work history.

Measuring welfare impact often uses poverty rates, the at-risk-of-poverty measure, and social expenditure as a share of GDP, as well as health, education, and employment outcomes. There is considerable variation across countries, reflecting different economic structures, political choices, and cultural traditions. Nordic welfare states emphasize universal provision and high social spending, while liberal models favor targeted support and market mechanisms.

Critics argue about cost, incentives, and dependence, while supporters emphasize inequality reduction and resilience to shocks. Debates commonly address universality versus targeting, fiscal sustainability, and the balance between public provision and private provision.