Constructivism

Constructivism is a broad epistemological and educational approach that holds that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals rather than passively absorbed from the environment. Learners bring prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences that shape interpretation of new information within social and cultural contexts.

In philosophy and psychology, constructivism traces to Kant's assertion that the mind structures experience, but is most associated with Piaget's theory of cognitive development (schemata, assimilation, accommodation) and with Vygotsky's social constructivism (the role of social interaction, language, and the zone of proximal development). Radical constructivism, associated with Ernst von Glasersfeld, emphasizes that knowledge is a personal construction and that truth is a function of an individual's coherence.

Core ideas include that knowledge arises from actively organizing experiences, that cognitive structures adapt through accommodation, and that more advanced understanding is supported by social mediation and cultural tools. In learning contexts, this translates to learner-centered, inquiry-based, problem-based, and collaborative approaches, with teachers guiding rather than transmitting information and providing scaffolding.

Variants include cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, and radical constructivism. In fields such as international relations, constructivism emphasizes the role of shared ideas, norms, and identities in shaping state behavior, rather than material forces alone.

Criticisms center on concerns about relativism, the replicability of knowledge, and the practical challenges of assessment; some argue that constructivism underplays the role of empirical data and universal standards. Proponents respond that it highlights the situated and contingent nature of knowledge and supports adaptive, reflective learning.