watermills

Watermills are facilities in which mechanical energy is generated from flowing or falling water. A water wheel or, in modern installations, a turbine is turned by water and transmits motion through gears to drive millstones or other machinery. Historically, watermills were used to grind grain, but also to saw timber, full cloth, crush ore, or pump water. They played a central role in agricultural and early industrial economies, especially in regions with reliable river or stream flow.

Wheels come in several types. The most common are overshot, breastshot and undershot vertical wheels, which differ in how they contact the water and in efficiency. A horizontal or vertical shaft carries gearing that multiplies speed and delivers rotation to the millstones. In many mills, water power was converted to rotational energy through a series of gears, a pit wheel, a great spur wheel, and stone nuts. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, water turbines such as Francis or Pelton designs replaced most traditional wheels in new installations.

Location and operation: mills require a head of water and a controlled flow, provided by a headrace and tailrace and, often, a weir or dam. The water turns the wheel or turbine, then exits to the stream, with the energy used to rotate a shaft and millstones.

Today, many watermills survive as heritage sites. Some remain operational for demonstrations or small-scale production; others have been preserved as museums or private residences.