Reformation

The Reformation was a major schism in Western Christianity during the 16th century that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestant churches. It emerged from critiques of church practices and governance, calls for renewed biblical scholarship, and the broader social changes of the era. The movement gained momentum with the publication of Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, which challenged indulgences and questioned papal authority. The advent of the printing press and rising literacy helped spread reformist ideas across Europe.

Key reformers beyond Luther included Huldrych Zwingli in Zurich, John Calvin in Geneva, and, in England, movements that culminated in the Anglican Reformation. While reformers shared concerns about corruption and the authority of scripture, they differed on doctrines and church structure. Core ideas often included justification by faith, the primacy of Scripture over church tradition, and the priesthood of all believers. Some reformers retained many traditional practices, while others advocated extensive changes in doctrine, worship, and ecclesiastical organization.

The Reformation led to the formation of distinct Protestant churches and prompted a Catholic Counter-Reformation, including the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and internal reforms. The broader religious landscape of Europe became more denominational and sectarian, contributing to prolonged conflicts such as wars and political upheavals, but also to advances in education, literacy, and translations of the Bible into vernacular languages.

Its legacy is a religious and cultural diversification that reshaped church-state relations, informed debates about religious liberty, and influenced modern Western thought well beyond theology.