operantconditioning

Operant conditioning is a method of learning in which the consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. The approach focuses on voluntary behaviors and uses reinforcement to increase them and punishment to decrease them. The concept was developed extensively by B. F. Skinner, building on earlier work by Edward Thorndike and others, and it contrasts with classical conditioning, which involves reflexive responses to stimuli.

Reinforcement strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement introduces a favorable outcome after a behavior, such as praise or a reward. Negative reinforcement removes or prevents an aversive condition, such as stopping an annoyingly loud noise when a task is completed. Punishment aims to reduce behavior: positive punishment adds an aversive consequence (for example a reprimand), while negative punishment withdraws a desirable stimulus (for example a loss of privileges). Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decline in that behavior over time.

Reinforcement schedules influence how behavior is learned and maintained. Continuous reinforcement gives rewards after every occurrence, while partial or intermittent reinforcement provides reinforcement on a varied schedule (for example fixed or variable ratio, fixed or variable interval), which often produces greater resistance to extinction. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior, and discrimination and generalization describe how organisms respond to different or similar stimuli.

Applications are widespread, including education, animal training, and clinical behavior therapy (such as token economies and contingency management). Limitations include ethical concerns, ecological validity, and debates about the role of cognitive processes in learning. Operant conditioning remains a foundational concept in psychology and behavior analysis.