discrimination

Discrimination is the act or practice of treating people unfavorably because of a characteristic they possess or are believed to possess. It can target individuals or groups and occur in various contexts such as employment, housing, education, healthcare, and access to public services. Discrimination can be direct, when a person is explicitly treated less favorably, or indirect, when a policy or practice that appears neutral has disproportionate adverse effects on a protected group.

Protected characteristics commonly cited include race, ethnicity, color, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, age, disability, nationality, language, and socioeconomic status, among others. Discrimination may be intentional or unintentional and can be reinforced by social norms, stereotypes, or institutional rules. Systemic or structural discrimination refers to patterns of practices, laws, and norms embedded within organizations and society that perpetuate unequal outcomes even without malicious intent.

Consequences of discrimination include reduced access to opportunities, income and wealth gaps, poorer health outcomes, social exclusion, and diminished civic participation. Remedies often involve legal protections, anti-discrimination legislation, and enforcement by government agencies or courts, as well as organizational policies that promote equal opportunity, reasonable accommodation for disabilities, and accessibility. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals may experience multiple, overlapping forms of discrimination based on several characteristics.

Measurement and research employ audits, field experiments, and complaint data to identify discrimination and monitor progress. While progress has been made in many jurisdictions, discrimination remains a persistent issue requiring ongoing attention from policymakers, institutions, and communities.