courts

Courts are institutions within a legal system that interpret and apply laws, resolve disputes, and administer justice. They hear civil, criminal, administrative, and constitutional matters and issue binding decisions that may be enforced by the state.

Most legal systems organize courts in a hierarchy. Trial courts hear evidence and make initial determinations of fact and law; appellate courts review questions of law and ensure correct application of rules. At the top are supreme or constitutional courts that interpret the constitution and have final appellate authority. Many jurisdictions also maintain specialized courts—such as family, probate, tax, or commercial courts—to handle particular types of cases.

Judges (and, in some systems, lay assessors or juries) preside over proceedings. Court rules govern procedure, evidence, and rights to counsel, fairness, and due process. Some courts operate in a ‘court of record’ with an official transcript; others use less formal proceedings. Independence from the other branches of government is a core principle in many jurisdictions to protect impartiality.

In addition to adjudication, courts may supervise administrative agencies, issue injunctions, interpret statutes, and oversee constitutional rights. Access to courts and affordable legal representation are central to justice, and many systems encourage or require alternative dispute resolution to reduce litigation. Court administration covers staffing, budgeting, and technology to manage cases and records.

Legal traditions differ: common-law systems emphasize precedent and adversarial procedures, civil-law systems emphasize codified statutes and inquisitorial procedures. Despite differences, most courts share aims of upholding legal rights, ensuring fairness, and maintaining public confidence in the rule of law.