Judges

Judges are officials authorized to interpret and apply the law, resolve disputes, and ensure due process within courts and tribunals. They preside over proceedings, rule on admissibility of evidence, instruct juries where present, and render decisions that can set binding legal precedents. In trial courts, judges manage hearings, determine questions of law, and, in non-jury trials, may also determine questions of fact. Appellate judges review decisions from lower courts to identify legal errors and to clarify or interpret statutory and constitutional provisions.

Appointment and tenure systems vary widely. Some judges are elected, others are appointed by executive or legislative authorities, and some are chosen through a merit-based process. Tenure ranges from fixed terms to life tenure or mandatory retirement age. Judicial independence is commonly protected through security of tenure, insulated salaries, and rules governing conflicts of interest and ethical conduct.

Qualifications typically include a legal education, admission to the bar, professional experience, and demonstrated impartiality and integrity. Disciplinary processes exist to address misconduct or incapacity and may involve disciplinary bodies, higher courts, or legislative mechanisms.

Court hierarchies differ by jurisdiction. Higher courts, such as supreme or constitutional courts, hear significant constitutional or interpretative questions and review the jurisprudence of lower courts. Intermediate appellate courts handle appeals on legal grounds, while trial courts handle civil, criminal, administrative, and family matters. Some legal systems also employ specialized or administrative judges for particular domains, such as commercial, administrative, or military matters. Regardless of system, judges play a central role in upholding the rule of law and protecting the rights of parties within the justice framework.