Emotions

Emotions are coordinated psychological states typically triggered by salient events, combining subjective experience, physiological arousal, cognitive evaluation, and expressive behavior. They influence perception, memory, and action, and are distinct from moods, which are more prolonged and diffuse, and from affect, the broader category of feelings and mood states.

Theoretical perspectives on emotions vary. James-Lange posits that emotions arise from perceived bodily changes; Cannon-Bard argues that emotional experience and arousal occur in parallel; and Schachter-Singer emphasizes a cognitive labeling of arousal. Appraisal theories focus on how interpretations of events generate emotional responses. Some researchers propose a set of basic, universal emotions (as proposed by Ekman), while others describe emotions along dimensions of valence and arousal or as culturally constructed categories.

Neuroscientific and physiological findings point to distributed networks. The limbic system, especially the amygdala, supports rapid affective evaluation, while the insula contributes to interoceptive feelings. The prefrontal cortex and connected circuits regulate intensity, inhibit inappropriate responses, and mediate higher-order evaluation. Emotions can guide learning, memory encoding, and social communication.

Emotions have adaptive functions: they prepare action, motivate behavior, and signal social intentions. They are frequently regulated to maintain goals, with strategies such as reappraisal (changing how one thinks about a situation) and suppression (limiting outward signs). Cultural norms shape emotional expression, though some facial expressions appear cross-culturally recognizable.

Measurement and study combine self-report methods with physiological and behavioral indices; researchers examine duration, intensity, and frequency, as well as facial expressions, autonomic responses, and neural activity. Emotions vary in type, with basic emotions and more complex blends and life-context dependent experiences.