SchachterSinger

The Schachter-Singer theory, also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, is a cognitive account of how emotions arise. Proposed by psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer in 1962, the theory maintains that emotion results from the combination of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of its source. Arousal is considered nonspecific, and the emotional label a person attaches to that arousal depends on the surrounding situation and thoughts at the time.

According to the theory, physiological arousal provides the intensity of an emotional state, but the particular emotion—such as fear, anger, or happiness—depends on the individual’s appraisal of why they feel aroused. This cognitive labeling involves assessing contextual cues, past experiences, and expectations, which then determine the perceived emotion.

In the classic experiments, participants were injected with epinephrine and placed with a confederate who behaved in a way designed to evoke either amusement or anger. Some participants were told the injection would have certain effects, others were misinformed or left uninformed about potential side effects. The findings indicated that those with insufficient or misleading explanations for arousal labeled their feelings according to the confederate’s mood, whereas accurately informed participants did not show the same emotional labeling. The results provided support for the idea that cognition interacts with arousal to produce emotion.

The theory has been influential in shaping research on emotion and is often contrasted with purely physiological (James-Lange) or purely appraisal-based accounts. It has faced criticisms regarding methodology and replicability, and some studies have questioned the universality of the proposed mechanisms. Nonetheless, the Schachter-Singer framework remains a foundational reference in understanding how context and interpretation shape emotional experience.