1520s

The 1520s were a formative decade in early modern Europe and beyond, marked by religious upheaval, ongoing imperial rivalry, and expanding global contact. The Protestant Reformation accelerated in German-speaking lands, fueled by pamphlets and translations that spread through print. In 1521 the Diet of Worms condemned Martin Luther, and his subsequent protection at Wartburg enabled the movement to persist. Luther’s German New Testament followed in 1522, helping to shape vernacular religion. The era also witnessed intense social and religious conflict, notably the German Peasants’ War of 1524–1525, as reformist ideas intersected with popular grievances. The 1529 Diet of Speyer recognized existing practices in various realms and gave rise to the term Protestant.

In politics and warfare, the decade featured major shifts and violence. The Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent expanded into Central Europe, decisively defeating Hungary at Mohács in 1526 and advancing toward Vienna, which they failed to capture in 1529. The Sack of Rome in 1527, carried out by mutinous troops allied with Emperor Charles V, underscored the fragility of Italian and papal power. The period also saw sustained Habsburg–Valois rivalry and expanding military and political realignments across Europe.

In exploration and empire-building, the first global circumnavigation was completed in 1522 when Magellan’s expedition, continued by Elcano after his death in 1521, demonstrated the world’s connectivity. In the Americas, Hernán Cortés’s conquest of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan was completed in 1521, paving the way for further Spanish expansion. Portuguese and other European powers extended trade networks and colonial ventures across the Indian Ocean and Atlantic, accelerating the era of global exchange.

Cultural life remained heavily influenced by print and reformist ideas, with translations, pamphlets, and scholarly debates contributing to a rapidly changing intellectual landscape.