happiness

Happiness generally refers to a state of well-being characterized by positive affect and life evaluation. It is distinguished from momentary mood and encompasses both sensory pleasure and judgments about one’s life as a whole. Two broad approaches are used in scholarly work: hedonic happiness, which emphasizes pleasure and avoidance of pain, and eudaimonic happiness, which emphasizes meaning, purpose, and flourishing.

Measurement in this field often uses subjective well-being, including evaluations of life satisfaction and the frequency and intensity of positive and negative emotions. Standard instruments include the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), among others. Data are typically self-reported, and cross-cultural comparisons require careful interpretation due to differing norms and concepts of well-being.

Determinants of happiness arise from a combination of genetic, personality, and environmental factors. Traits such as extraversion and neuroticism, life circumstances, social relationships, health, employment, and income all contribute. Psychological processes such as adaptation or habituation can attenuate the impact of changing circumstances, while strong social ties and purposeful activity often relate to more durable well-being.

Theoretical perspectives within psychology include positive psychology, which focuses on strengths and flourishing; eudaimonic approaches, which stress functioning and meaning; and set-point theories, which propose that happiness levels tend to revert toward a baseline after major events. Cultural context shapes what is valued and how happiness is pursued.

Applications of well-being research span policy, education, and organizational practice. Interventions such as fostering gratitude, mindfulness, and prosocial behavior are studied, but researchers acknowledge limitations in measurement, potential cultural bias, and the risk of imposing a universal standard of happiness.