copd

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common, preventable, and progressive lung disease characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. It includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Most cases result from long-term inhalation of noxious particles or gases, especially cigarette smoke. Other risk factors include occupational exposures, indoor and outdoor air pollution, and genetic factors such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. Symptoms typically include increasing breathlessness, chronic cough, and sputum production.

COPD involves chronic airway inflammation, narrowing and remodeling of small airways, and destruction of lung tissue in emphysema. These changes reduce airflow, cause air trapping, and impair gas exchange. The disease often progresses and is linked to comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis.

Diagnosis relies on history and spirometry showing persistent airflow limitation, usually defined by a post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC ratio below 0.70. Severity is assessed by FEV1 percent predicted and by symptom burden and exacerbation risk. Imaging or labs may be used to evaluate comorbidity and rule out competing diagnoses.

Management focuses on reducing risk factors and relieving symptoms. Smoking cessation is essential. Pharmacologic therapy includes inhaled bronchodilators (short-acting and long-acting) and, for some patients, inhaled corticosteroids. Nonpharmacologic treatments such as pulmonary rehabilitation, vaccination, and avoidance of triggers are important. Oxygen therapy is used for chronic hypoxemia, and selected patients may be considered for surgical options such as lung volume reduction or transplantation.

COPD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Prognosis varies with disease severity and comorbidity burden. Prevention centers on avoiding tobacco smoke and reducing exposure to pollutants.

---