cardiovascular

Cardiovascular refers to the cardiovascular system, a closed circulatory network that moves blood through the body. It includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart acts as a muscular pump, generating pressure to propel blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries. The system comprises two circuits: pulmonary (to the lungs) and systemic (to the body).

Blood vessels consist of arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; veins, which return it; and capillaries, where exchange with tissues occurs. The heart has four chambers—two atria and two ventricles—and a conduction system that coordinates rhythm via the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, and specialized pathways.

In normal function, the cardiovascular system maintains circulation, tissue perfusion, and blood pressure while supporting thermoregulation and immune responses. Cardiac output, the product of heart rate and stroke volume, and peripheral resistance determine blood pressure.

Common conditions include hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, arrhythmias, and stroke. Risk factors are age, tobacco use, obesity, physical inactivity, high cholesterol, and diabetes or family history. Diagnosis uses history, physical examination, and tests such as electrocardiography and echocardiography; imaging, labs, and stress testing may be employed.

Treatment emphasizes lifestyle modification and medications; procedures, such as angioplasty or bypass surgery; and devices like pacemakers or implantable defibrillators when needed. Prevention centers on risk factor control: regular exercise, a balanced diet, not smoking, maintaining healthy weight, and monitoring blood pressure and lipids.