castles

A castle is a fortified residence built during the Middle Ages that served as a military stronghold and the administrative center of a lord's domain. Castles were typically situated to control strategic locations such as river crossings, hilltops, or borders. They combined defensive features with living quarters for the noble household and their retainers, and they symbolized political authority as well as military power. Not all fortifications were castles; some were strongholds, palaces, or frontier outposts built for specific purposes.

Architectural features varied by region and period but commonly included a keep or donjon, curtain walls, and towers connected by battlements. A motte-and-bailey design consisted of an earthwork mound (motte) topped by a wooden keep, with a walled enclosure (bailey) at its base. Stone castles later added substantial walls, gatehouses, portcullises, murder holes, and arrow slits. Defenses often relied on moats, drawbridges, and complex layouts that complicated siege work. Living spaces, storerooms, chapels, and workshops were integrated within the fortress, sometimes occupying multiple enclosures.

Castle construction flourished in medieval Europe, especially from the 10th to 15th centuries, in response to feudal warfare and frontier pressures. Stone castles became more common in the 12th and 13th centuries, with innovations such as concentric walls and larger towers. Regional variants include the Norman motte-and-bailey, the French chateau fort, and the English and Scottish border towers. Outside Europe, fortifications such as Crusader castles in the Levant and Japanese castles with tenshu (main keeps) illustrate different architectural traditions and defensive philosophies.

Advances in artillery and changes in governance reduced the military role of castles after the late Middle Ages. Many were adapted as administrative centers or noble residences, while others fell into ruin. Today, castles are important historic monuments and tourist attractions, with extensive preservation and study by archaeologists and historians. UNESCO sites and regional heritage programs help protect notable examples around the world.