philosophies

Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It uses argument and critical reflection to analyze concepts, assess evidence, and articulate coherent worldviews. Philosophical inquiry proceeds through systematic methods such as conceptual analysis, thought experiments, argumentation, and careful interpretation of concepts.

Subfields of philosophy include metaphysics (the nature of reality), epistemology (the theory of knowledge), ethics (principles of right and wrong), aesthetics (beauty and art), logic (the rules of correct reasoning), philosophy of science, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language. Political philosophy and philosophy of law explore justice, governance, and normative justification. Many traditions address how to apply theory to life, knowledge, and social practice.

Philosophies have developed in many cultures. In the Western tradition, early Greek thought gave way to medieval scholasticism, then modern rationalism and empiricism, followed by diverse movements in analytic and continental philosophy. Other traditions, such as Confucian, Daoist, Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Islamic, African, and Indigenous philosophies, offer distinct methods, concepts, and aims. Schools and movements include rationalism, empiricism, existentialism, phenomenology, utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, skepticism, pragmatism, and post-structuralism, among others. Some philosophies emphasize science and language; others focus on ethics, politics, or spiritual insight.

Philosophy differs from religion in that it centers on reasoning and evidence, open to revision in light of new arguments. The plural 'philosophies' reflects the diversity of systematic ways people think about fundamental questions and how those ideas guide inquiry and life.