pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that originated in the United States in the late 19th century. It emphasizes that the meaning of ideas and the truth of beliefs are to be sought in their practical effects and application in experience.

Origins and key figures: The movement began with Charles Sanders Peirce, who articulated the pragmatic maxim: to think of a concept as the sum of its practical consequences. William James popularized a pragmatic theory of truth and belief as tools for human life. John Dewey extended pragmatism into a theory of inquiry and education, arguing that thinking should be a collaborative, problem-solving process aimed at improving experiences.

Core ideas: Pragmatists hold that concepts acquire meaning through their experiential use; truth is not a fixed mirror of reality but what proves workable in inquiry and conduct. Belief is a hypothesis to be tested by consequences in experience. They emphasize fallibilism, the openness to revision, and the role of inquiry, experimentation, and democratic discussion in resolving problems.

Variants: Classical pragmatism includes Peirce, James, and Dewey. Neopragmatism, associated with Richard Rorty and others in the late 20th century, emphasizes language, anti-essentialism, and the idea that truth is a product of social practices rather than correspondence with an independent reality.

Impact: Pragmatism has influenced epistemology, philosophy of science, ethics, education, and political theory, and has shaped American intellectual culture by linking inquiry with democratic ideals.

Criticisms: Critics have charged pragmatism with relativism or anti-foundationalism, while others argue it is insufficiently attentive to objective constraints or truth as correspondence.