calcul

Calcul, commonly translated as calculation in English, is the process of determining a numerical result from data by applying arithmetic rules and, in many cases, more advanced mathematical methods. It can be performed mentally, written by hand, or carried out by machines. The word derives from Latin calculus, meaning pebble or counting stone, via Old French calcul, and is cognate with the term calculus used for a branch of mathematics.

Historically, calculation began with tallying and counting boards, followed by the abacus in various cultures. The development of mechanical calculators in the 17th and 18th centuries—such as Blaise Pascal’s Pascaline and later devices—increased speed and accuracy. The 19th and 20th centuries saw further mechanical innovations and, ultimately, the invention of electronic calculators. In the mid-20th century, general-purpose computers transformed calculation from specialized tasks to routine, large-scale processing.

Today, calculation encompasses numerical and symbolic methods. Numerical calculation seeks approximate results for real-valued problems using algorithms for solving equations, integration, optimization, and differential equations, with attention to rounding errors and stability. Symbolic calculation, implemented in computer algebra systems, manipulates symbols exactly rather than numerically. Digital computation relies on floating-point arithmetic and standardized hardware, enabling vast quantities of data processing and simulation.

Calculation is foundational to science, engineering, finance, statistics, and everyday life. It enables measurements, modeling, decision making, and data analysis, from simple arithmetic in budgeting to complex simulations in physics and economics. See also arithmetic, numerical analysis, and computer algebra systems.