hardware

Hardware refers to the tangible components that make up a computer system or other mechanical and electronic devices. It contrasts with software, which consists of the programs and data that run on hardware. In computing, hardware typically includes the central processing unit (CPU), memory such as RAM, persistent storage (hard disk drives or solid-state drives), motherboard, power supply, and cooling systems, as well as peripheral devices such as keyboards, mice, displays, and printers. Networking hardware includes devices like routers, switches, modems, and network interface cards. In embedded and consumer electronics, hardware encompasses the physical circuits and assemblies inside devices such as smartphones, cameras, and automotive electronics.

Hardware design and manufacture involve electrical, computer, and mechanical engineering. After concept and schematic design, prototypes are built, tested, and certified for safety and compatibility. Manufacturing uses processes such as printed circuit board fabrication, semiconductor fabrication, assembly, and quality control. Interoperability is supported by standards and interfaces such as PCI Express, USB, SATA, HDMI, Ethernet, and wireless standards. The hardware lifecycle includes maintenance, firmware or software updates, upgrades, and eventual end-of-life disposal or recycling. Performance depends on architecture, manufacturing process, thermal design, and energy efficiency.

Current trends include the rise of system-on-a-chip designs, hardware accelerators like GPUs and AI chips, and modular or upgradable components. The growth of cloud computing and edge computing has shaped data-center and device hardware choices. Security features, reliability, and energy efficiency are increasingly prioritized in both consumer and industrial hardware. Open hardware initiatives aim to share designs and encourage collaboration while protecting safety and intellectual property.