Reformacja

Reformacja, often translated as the Reformation, was a major religious movement in 16th-century Europe that led to the establishment of Protestantism and permanently altered the religious and political landscape of the continent. It began as an attempt to reform the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, but soon escalated into a schism that divided Western Christianity.

Key figures like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli challenged papal authority, the sale of indulgences, and certain doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church, emphasizing salvation through faith alone and the Bible as the ultimate religious authority. Luther's Ninety-five Theses, published in 1517, is often cited as the catalyst for the movement.

The Reformation had profound and far-reaching consequences. It sparked numerous religious wars and conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War. Politically, it contributed to the rise of nation-states as monarchs seized church lands and asserted greater control over religious affairs within their territories. Culturally, it spurred literacy and education through the translation of the Bible into vernacular languages and influenced art, music, and philosophy. The movement resulted in the creation of various Protestant denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism, each with its own distinct theological interpretations and organizational structures. The Catholic Church responded with its own Counter-Reformation, a period of renewal and reform aimed at addressing some of the criticisms and reaffirming its doctrines.