Qing

The Qing dynasty, also known as the Manchu dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912. The name Qing (清) means "clear" or "pure" in Chinese. It was established by the Aisin Gioro clan of the Manchus after their rise in Manchuria; Nurhaci founded the Later Jin in 1616, and his successors renamed the state Qing in 1636. The dynasty expanded from Manchuria into the Chinese heartland during the 17th and 18th centuries, culminating in a multi-ethnic empire.

The Qing replaced the Ming after capturing Beijing in 1644 and gradually consolidated control over most of China proper. Governance blended a Chinese bureaucratic framework with the Manchu Banner military system. The civil service examinations remained a pathway to office, while the court used both Chinese and Manchu languages. The empire maintained a centralized, hereditary monarchy and a complex ritual and administrative apparatus.

Under emperors such as Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong the Qing reached a peak in territorial extent and population. The empire expanded into Tibet, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia, and it engaged in diplomacy and trade with Russia and European powers. However, the 19th century brought internal rebellions and external pressures, including the Opium Wars, Taiping and other uprisings, and the Boxer Rebellion, spurring late-Qing reforms with limited success.

The dynasty fell after the 1911 Revolution, and the last emperor, Puyi, abdicated in 1912, ending over two thousand years of imperial rule. The Qing left a lasting impact on China’s borders, ethnic policy, administration, and cultural production.