Mining

Mining is the process of extracting valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, vein, seam, or larger deposit. Common mined commodities include metals such as gold, copper, and iron; coal; and industrial minerals like limestone and phosphates. Mining has been practiced since ancient times and ranges from small-scale artisanal activities to large-scale multinational operations.

Extraction commonly proceeds through surface mining or underground mining. Surface methods include open-pit, strip, and mountaintop removal, while underground methods include room-and-pillar and longwall mining. Once ore is extracted, it is processed to concentrate the target material through crushing, grinding, and physical or chemical separation. The concentrated ore may then be refined through smelting or electrochemical processes to produce metal products, or beneficiated for use as industrial materials. Exploration uses geological surveys, drilling, and geophysical methods to locate ore bodies.

Mining can have substantial environmental and social impacts. Habitat disruption, water pollution from mine drainage, tailings dams, dust and noise, and greenhouse gas emissions are common concerns. Safety risks include collapses, gas explosions, and exposure to hazardous substances. Regulations typically require environmental impact assessments, land rehabilitation, and worker protections. Responsible mining emphasizes tailings management, water stewardship, emissions reduction, community engagement, and planning for site closure and reclamation.

Economically, mining is capital-intensive and closely tied to commodity prices, with supply chains spanning exploration, development, production, and refining. Advances in automation, remote operation, and process control are shaping modern mining, while increasing emphasis on sustainable practices and transparent reporting influences approvals and community relations.