geophysical

Geophysical refers to methods and studies that apply physical principles to investigate the Earth’s interior and its processes. Geophysics uses measurements of natural fields (passive) or generated signals (active) to infer properties such as density, structure, composition, and temperature.

The discipline encompasses several techniques. Seismology analyzes elastic waves to map subsurface structure and detect earthquakes. Gravity surveys measure minute variations in the Earth's gravitational field to infer density anomalies. Magnetic methods map variations in rocks' magnetization. Electrical and electromagnetic methods (including resistivity, induced polarization, magnetotellurics, and ground-penetrating radar) probe conductivity and related properties. Thermal methods examine heat flow; geothermal methods explore heat resources.

Applications include hydrocarbon and mineral exploration; groundwater and geothermal resource assessment; environmental site characterization and groundwater contamination; engineering investigations for construction projects; volcanic and seismic hazard assessment; archaeological investigations.

Data interpretation involves forward modeling and inversion to create subsurface models. Challenges include non-uniqueness of solutions, limited resolution, noise, and dependence on geologic priors. Modern geophysics often integrates multiple methods with geological and geochemical data to constrain interpretations.

Geophysical research continues to advance with improvements in sensors, data processing, and computational methods, enabling deeper imaging, higher resolution, and real-time monitoring in areas such as earthquake monitoring, volcanic activity, and subsurface contamination.