Dispute

Dispute is a disagreement between two or more parties over rights, duties, or the interpretation of facts, law, or contractual obligations. Disputes can arise in a wide range of settings, including civil, commercial, labor, administrative, and international affairs. A dispute may involve perceived harm, alleged breach, or competing interests, and it may or may not lead to formal dispute resolution processes. The term can cover both ongoing conflicts and past disputes that have reached a decision.

Types of disputes vary by context. Civil disputes concern contracts, torts, property, or family matters. Commercial disputes arise between businesses, while labor disputes involve workers and employers. Administrative disputes concern decisions of government agencies. International disputes involve differences between states or organizations, often over borders, treaties, or trade. Many disputes are cross-border and encounter different legal systems and procedures.

Resolution methods include negotiation (informal bargaining), mediation (facilitated settlement discussions, non-binding), arbitration (binding decision by an arbitrator or panel), and litigation (court adjudication). Other ADR methods include conciliation and expert determination. Choice depends on factors such as cost, time, confidentiality, enforceability, and the parties’ expectations about the outcome.

Outcomes range from settlements and consent decrees to formal judgments or arbitral awards. Enforceability depends on jurisdiction and applicable treaties or rules; court orders are generally enforceable through domestic systems, while international arbitration awards may be enforceable under instruments like the New York Convention. Disputes can end with resolution, or may continue until a final decision is reached.