textbooks

Textbooks are instructional books used as standard references for the study of a particular subject. They are typically adopted by schools, colleges, and universities as core material for courses, providing a structured presentation of concepts, examples, and exercises that align with curriculum goals. Textbooks vary widely in format, ranging from printed volumes to digital e‑books, and may include supplementary resources such as workbooks, online quizzes, and multimedia content.

The modern textbook emerged in the 19th century with the expansion of public education and the standardization of curricula. Early examples, such as mathematics and science manuals, were designed to ensure consistent instruction across schools. The rise of publishing houses specializing in educational materials further professionalized the market, leading to extensive editorial review, author collaboration, and periodic revisions to incorporate new research and pedagogical approaches.

Types of textbooks are often classified by discipline (e.g., mathematics, history, biology), educational level (primary, secondary, tertiary), and format (print, electronic, open‑access). Commercial publishers dominate the market, but open educational resources (OER) have grown as alternatives that allow free use and adaptation, aiming to reduce costs for students.

Criticism of textbooks focuses on high prices, slow update cycles, and potential bias in content selection. In response, many institutions negotiate licensing agreements, adopt digital platforms that enable quicker revisions, or curate OER collections. Despite challenges, textbooks remain central to formal education, serving as authoritative guides that support learning outcomes and provide a common reference point for instructors and learners alike.