stutter

Stuttering, also called stammering, is a speech fluency disorder characterized by disruptions in the flow of speaking. These disruptions typically take the form of repetitions of sounds, syllables, or words; prolongations of sounds; and blocks in which speech momentarily stops despite effort to continue. People who stutter may also exhibit secondary behaviors such as facial tension, blink reflexes, or other movements, and their speech patterns can vary by situation, mood, or fatigue.

Developmental stuttering usually begins in early childhood. Most affected children recover spontaneously within a few years, but a substantial minority continue into adolescence or adulthood. In the general population, about 1% of adults stutter. Stuttering can vary in severity over time and across contexts, and it is not tied to intelligence or learning ability.

Causes are multifactorial and not fully understood. A genetic predisposition appears to play a major role, with neurophysiological differences in speech planning and production observed in some individuals who stutter. Environmental factors, stress, and communication demands can influence onset and severity, but no single cause explains all cases.

Diagnosis is typically made by a speech-language pathologist through evaluation of fluency, disfluency types, duration, the person’s age, and the impact on communication. Management aims to improve fluency, reduce avoidance, and enhance communication skills. Approaches include indirect methods (parent-focused strategies for children), direct therapies such as fluency shaping or stuttering modification, and cognitive-behavioral interventions for associated anxiety. Support, education, and accommodations also play a role.

Prognosis varies; many people achieve greater fluency with therapy, while others learn to manage stuttering effectively and pursue successful communication in daily life.