deviance

Deviance refers to actions, beliefs, or conditions that violate the norms of a society or social group. What counts as deviant depends on time, place, and context, and it can range from minor violations of etiquette to serious criminal acts. Deviance is not identical to crime; crime is deviance that breaches formal legal codes, but many noncriminal behaviors can be deviant and some crimes may be tolerated or stigmatized differently by various groups. Deviance can be formal or informal, public or private, and it often elicits social sanctions.

Theories of deviance include functionalist, symbolic-interactionist, and conflict perspectives. In functionalism, Émile Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal and necessary part of society: it clarifies norms, promotes social cohesion, and stimulates social change. Robert Merton expanded this with strain theory, suggesting deviance arises when people lack legitimate means to achieve culturally valued goals, leading to adaptations such as innovation or retreatism. Control theories, such as Hirschi’s, emphasize the role of social bonds in preventing deviance.

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how deviance is created and sustained through social interaction. Labeling theory (Becker) holds that deviance is not inherent in an act but results from classification by authorities and the ensuing stigma, which can produce secondary deviance. Differential association argues that deviance is learned through interactions with others who engage in deviant behavior, while subcultural and conflict theories stress the role of power, norms, and group membership in defining what counts as deviant.

Because norms vary across cultures and historical periods, deviance is culturally relative. Researchers study it through surveys, official statistics, ethnography, and analysis of social reactions to behavior.