aggressions

Aggression refers to a range of behaviors intended to harm, intimidate, or exert power over others. In humans and other animals, aggression can be physical, verbal, or relational, and may be direct or indirect. It is distinct from assertiveness, which aims to defend rights without causing harm.

Forms include direct physical aggression (hitting, pushing), direct verbal aggression (threats, insults), and indirect or relational aggression (exclusion, spreading rumors). Aggressive acts may be impulsive or planned and can occur in intimate relationships, schools, workplaces, and online settings.

Causes and theories: Biological factors such as genetics and hormones; neurodevelopmental influences; and environmental contributors including parenting practices, peer influences, and exposure to violence. Theories include the frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory, and the general aggression model, which highlight emotion, cognition, and context.

Development and context: Aggression tends to peak in childhood and adolescence and declines with maturation and socialization for many individuals. Risk factors include family conflict, harsh or neglectful parenting, substance use, and peer rejection. Protective factors include stable relationships, supportive schools, and prosocial norms.

Impact and assessment: Aggression can cause physical injury, psychological distress, disruptions to learning or work, and legal consequences for the perpetrator. It is assessed through self- and observer reports, behavioral observations, and clinical criteria for related disorders when applicable.

Management and prevention: Approaches include parent training, social skills and anger management programs, conflict resolution education, and treatment of underlying conditions. In severe cases, medical or psychiatric interventions may be indicated. Community and school programs aim to reduce exposure to violence and promote prosocial behavior.