Utilitarian

Utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that judge actions by their consequences, aiming to maximize overall well-being. A utilitarian is someone who subscribes to these theories. The central idea is the greatest happiness principle: the right action is the one that produces the greatest net balance of happiness over unhappiness for all affected beings. The doctrine emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with Jeremy Bentham often regarded as founder and John Stuart Mill as a major reformer. Bentham proposed a hedonic calculus to weigh pleasures and pains, while Mill emphasized a qualitative distinction between higher and lower pleasures.

There are several variants. Act utilitarianism evaluates each action by its specific consequences, whereas rule utilitarianism assesses the consequences of adopting general rules of conduct that, if followed, maximize utility. Other strands include preference utilitarianism, which prioritizes satisfying people’s preferences, and negative utilitarianism, which focuses on minimizing suffering.

Utilitarian ideas have influenced moral theory, political philosophy, and public policy, contributing to welfare economics and cost-benefit analysis. They have faced criticisms, notably that aggregating happiness could, in principle, justify actions that harm individuals or minorities if overall happiness increases. Critics also challenge the ability to predict consequences, to measure well-being, and to reconcile utilitarian calculations with justice and rights. Proponents counter that utilitarian reasoning can incorporate constraints, rules, and protections for rights, and that well-being encompasses fair treatment and autonomy.

Today, utilitarian reasoning remains influential in ethical debate and policy discussions, often in dialogue with other ethical frameworks such as deontology and virtue ethics. The term "utilitarian" also denotes adherents of these approaches and, more broadly, a pragmatic emphasis on outcomes and social welfare in ethical evaluation.