suffering

Suffering refers to the subjective experience of physical or mental distress, hardship, or pain that extends beyond sensory symptoms to include emotional, cognitive, and existential aspects. It can arise from illness, injury, disability, loss, trauma, discrimination, or deprivation, and may be acute or chronic. The experience is shaped by biological factors, personal psychology, social context, and cultural meanings.

Suffering is often described as comprising multiple dimensions, including physical suffering (pain, fatigue), emotional suffering (sadness, anxiety, fear), and existential or moral suffering (questions of meaning, guilt, injustice). The boundary between pain and suffering is not fixed; suffering reflects interpretation, appraisal, and coping as well as physical sensation.

Philosophical and religious traditions have treated suffering in various ways. In Buddhism, dukkha denotes unsatisfactoriness inherent in existence; in Christianity, suffering can be redemptive or a test; in Stoicism, it is something to be understood and endured with rationality. In contemporary psychology and medicine, suffering is studied as distress or impairment and a target for intervention.

Coping strategies include medical treatment for underlying causes, psychological therapies, social support, and practices such as mindfulness or acceptance. Effective care often emphasizes reducing suffering as a goal, alongside restoring function and quality of life. Cultural and individual factors influence how suffering is experienced, expressed, and valued, and can affect access to care.

Assessment of suffering relies on self-report and qualitative methods; cross-cultural measures must account for differing norms about expressing distress. Research and policy address alleviating suffering through health care, social services, and humanitarian aid, while acknowledging that some degree of suffering may be an inescapable aspect of human life.