Stoics

Stoics, followers of Stoicism, are adherents of a Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE by Zeno of Citium. The Stoics taught that virtue is the highest good and that a rational, nature-aligned life leads to eudaimonia (flourishing). They held that the world is ordered by divine rational principles (logos) and that human beings should live in harmony with nature and society.

Central to Stoicism are the dichotomy of control and the four cardinal virtues—wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. The system divides philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics. In ethics, virtue is sufficient for happiness; externals are indifferent. Stoicism also emphasizes living according to nature, accepting fate, and achieving equanimity (apatheia) through reason. Epistemology emphasizes assent to impressions; practical training includes reflection on misfortune and voluntary exercises to habituate virtue.

Early Stoics include Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, who systematized the theory. In Roman times, notable practitioners were Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, whose writings shaped later moral philosophy. These thinkers applied Stoic ideas to politics, ethics, and daily life, stressing self-control, resilience, and civic duty.

Stoicism influenced later philosophical thought in the Western tradition and contributed to modern cognitive therapies that teach reframing and rational evaluation of emotions. Its emphasis on virtue, rational conduct, and acceptance of what cannot be controlled remains a common reference for discussions of ethics, personal resilience, and public virtue.