Hellenistic

Hellenistic refers to a period and culture that emerged following the conquests of Alexander the Great, when Greek language, art, and ideas spread across the eastern Mediterranean and Near East. The term is used by modern scholars to describe roughly the era from the death of Alexander in 323 BCE to the incorporation of the Hellenistic kingdoms into the Roman Republic and Empire, traditionally dated to around 31–30 BCE.

Geography and politics: The era saw the formation of successor kingdoms—the Antigonid dynasty in Macedon, the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the Near East, and later Hellenistic kingdoms such as Pergamon in Asia Minor. These kingdoms fostered urban culture, large libraries, and networks of trade.

Cultural characteristics: Hellenistic culture blended Greek artistic and intellectual traditions with local customs from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and India, producing new schools of philosophy (Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism), science (Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes), and religion (polytheism with local deities, mystery cults).

Cities such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamon became major centers of learning and commerce, with the Library of Alexandria symbolizing the era's scholarly achievements. The spread of Greek language and urban practices contributed to a cosmopolitan culture across the eastern Mediterranean.

Legacy: The Hellenistic period laid foundations for Greco-Roman culture and influenced art, science, and education for centuries. Its end is often linked to Roman domination, culminating with the defeat of Cleopatra and Antony and the absorption of Egypt into the Roman Empire.