Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 50–135 CE) was a Greek Stoic philosopher who taught in Rome and later in Nicopolis in Epirus. Born a slave in Hierapolis, Phrygia (in present-day Turkey), he was owned by Epaphroditus, a secretary to Nero, and gained his freedom after a period of service. Following the ban on philosophers from Rome by Emperor Domitian, around 93 CE he established a school in Nicopolis and taught there for the remainder of his life.

Epictetus’s philosophy centers on practical ethics and the view that philosophy is a way of life. He argued that external events are not under our control, while our own beliefs, desires, and actions are. The core principle is the dichotomy of control: one should accept what cannot be changed and devote effort to what is within one’s power. For Epictetus, virtue is the only true good and is sufficient for a tranquil life, achieved by living in accordance with nature and reason, cultivating self-discipline, and maintaining inner freedom regardless of external circumstances.

His teachings were recorded by his student Arrian in the Discourses, a multi-volume compilation, and in the Enchiridion (Handbook), a concise manual of practical precepts. Epictetus became a central figure of Roman-era Stoicism, influencing later Stoics and contributing to the broader Western tradition of ethical self-management and resilience. His emphasis on internal governance over external fortune continues to shape modern interpretations of Stoic philosophy.