Manusmriti

Manusmriti, or the Laws of Manu, is a classical Hindu legal and social code attributed to the sage Manu. Written in classical Sanskrit, it is a central text of the Dharmashastra tradition within Smriti literature, outlining duties, rights, and social norms that governed Hindu society. Its authority has varied across history and among communities.

Scholars generally date its core to the early centuries CE, drawing on older material; the surviving arrangement comprises about 2,600 verses in 12 chapters. The text presents dharma as duties and conduct aligned with the four varnas and four ashramas, and prescribes norms for individuals, families, and rulers.

Contents cover kingship, civil and criminal law, ritual purity, marriage, succession, property, and gender roles, as well as priestly and household conduct. It emphasizes lineage, caste endogamy, and obedience of women to male guardians, alongside broader duties of daily life and ritual obligations.

Historically, Manusmriti influenced Hindu law and social norms across periods and regions, and it has been cited by jurists, reformers, and commentators. It was widely studied and translated, but its status as an authoritative canon has varied, and many scholars view it as a historical document rather than universal law.

In modern scholarship and discourse, Manusmriti remains central to debates about caste and gender in Hindu tradition. Reform movements and contemporary Hindu thinkers often reject or reinterpret its prescriptions, treating the text as a historical artifact rather than a binding code.