caste

Caste refers to a hereditary social group whose members are born into and remain within for life, typically in which social expectations, including marriage, occupation, and ritual status, are transmitted across generations. Caste groups are traditionally endogamous and rank within a broader hierarchy, often tied to concepts of purity and pollution. The term is closely associated with the Indian subcontinent, where the caste system has been most elaborated, but anthropologists apply the concept to other regions with comparable hereditary, endogamous layers.

In India, the system has historically operated as a multi-layered structure. The classical model divides society into four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) with many more restricted subgroups called jatis. Although popular descriptions emphasize the varna scheme, localities exhibit extensive regional variation and fluidity over time. Caste influenced access to resources, education, marriage, and political authority, though it intersected with religion, region, and class. Today, while caste-based discrimination is illegal in India, caste identities continue to influence social and economic outcomes and political mobilization.

During British rule, castes were documented in census and administrative practices, which affected identity formation and mobility. Since independence in 1947, constitutional protections prohibit untouchability and guarantee equality before law; affirmative action policies (reservations) aim to expand access to education and jobs for historically disadvantaged caste groups. Similar caste-like hierarchies, often with localized practices, have existed in parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Europe, though they differ in origins and enforcement.

Scholars debate the applicability of "caste" as a universal category, noting that status is often inherited and ascribed, with varying degrees of mobility depending on time and place.