Inquisition

Inquisition refers to a set of institutions within the Catholic Church and, in some periods, under secular rulers, charged with identifying, investigating, and judging heresy and other doctrinal offenses. The term originated in the Middle Ages and was used in various countries with differing aims, procedures, and scopes, ranging from local inquiries to centralized tribunals.

Medieval Inquisition arose in the 12th and 13th centuries to address movements deemed heretical, such as the Cathars and Waldenses, particularly in France and the Crown of Aragon. It operated under papal authority, with inquisitors appointed to oversee investigations, collect testimony, and conduct trials. Procedures varied by region, but common features included a focus on doctrinal conformity, written records, and decisions enforced by the secular authorities.

The most prominent later branches were the Spanish Inquisition (established 1478 by the Crown of Castile and Aragon) and the Portuguese Inquisition (1536). The Spanish Inquisition sought to enforce Catholic orthodoxy among converts and their descendants, often using localized tribunals, surveillance, and asset seizures; it lasted until the 1830s and remains controversial for its methods and scope. Other regions had their own inquisitorial systems as well.

The Roman Inquisition (1542) operated under the Holy See and aimed to curb heresy and protect Catholic doctrine within Catholic states. It pursued cases against Protestants, scientists, and philosophers, including the Galileo affair. In the 20th century, the church reorganized its approach to doctrine, with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith taking precedence after 1965.

Historians view inquisitions as a complex phenomenon, balancing efforts to maintain doctrinal unity with abuses and violations of due process. They have influenced the development of judicial procedure and the relationship between church and state in Europe.